Arts & Social Science – 2022 UG Research Conference /2022ugconference Sun, 13 Mar 2022 09:09:33 +0000 en-US hourly 1 https://wordpress.org/?v=6.1.1 Phan Xiao Huei /2022ugconference/phan-xiao-huei/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=phan-xiao-huei /2022ugconference/phan-xiao-huei/#respond Wed, 02 Mar 2022 10:32:24 +0000 /2022ugconference/?p=4830 .student-information, .presentation-title { color: white !important; }
Fiona Wong

Lee Sheir Yin

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The Significance of Recovering From A Romantic Breakup and Finding Self-worth in Young Adults


BDC3725 Major Research ProjectÌý






This study concentrates on the relevance of recovering from a romantic breakup since the period of moving on and getting over the relationship is a critical component of whether one will be able to regain balance or enjoyment of life.

The purpose of this study is to assist young people in seeing the big picture and finding meaning in life by analysing their previous relationship.


The sorrow, pain and repressed emotions from a heartbreak may lead to a sense of losing oneself, low self-esteem and will greatly impact one’s mental health if the emotions were not properly taken care of.

The targeted audiences are emerging to adulthood while working on identity development, engaging in a relationship breakup will be the most significant life lessons for them. It is to encourage them to be aware of their self-growth and self-value although they are losing someone they love for the time being.Ìý


To develop further in terms of the targeted audience personal growth, finding their true self, achieving better work performances and emotions stability.

To accept and being mindfulness after the breakup, realising transformation.

To create awareness in decreasing the number of young adults coping with mental illness and suicide rate.Ìý





People who undergo breakup distress need help letting go or moving on.Ìý

People tend to blame themselves thinking that the breakup is their fault.Ìý

People seek attachment from their former romantic partners as there was a strong bond during the relationship.Ìý

Non-initiator of the breakup will have thoughts on vengeance after separation.

People are not ready to move on to another relationship due to post-traumatic stress that will trigger negative emotions.Ìý


1. What are the factors preventing people from recovering after a breakup?Ìý

2. What are the most effective ways to recover from a breakup?Ìý

3. How does one sees themselves after a breakup?Ìý

4. Does recovery helps with finding a meaning and purpose for life satisfaction in terms of future relationships?Ìý

5. How might we design a campaign to create awareness to encourage and motivate people to move on and develop personal growth?Ìý





Cowan (2006), codependency is a factor for attachment after a romantic breakup.Ìý

Dogra (2009), health is not an absence of illness but a good life with a sense of purpose and self-respect.Ìý

Novoa (2017), people integrate aspects of partner’s identity into their own identity.Ìý

Fox (2011), letting something go is like a change in priorities.



This study uses both quantitative (online surveys) and qualitative (interviews) methods.

Survey: 43 responses were recorded after a week.

Interview: 7 responses were recorded after two weeks. Ìý









More than half of the respondents stated that ‘Time’ is a major way to get over the breakup.Ìý

Apparently the same count goes for ‘Distraction’ and ‘Being by myself’. This shows that they make time for themselves to get some distraction from overthinking and eventually they can move on.Ìý

Most of the respondents were motivated to be better compared to when they just broke up. As a result they were also encouraged to let go and move on from the breakup.

When one is focusing on oneself, they give the energy to people out there as energy is contagious. They have the charm and it will project to others and impact them in some way.Ìý

Although majority of the respondents were on the right track healing from the breakup, some of the respondents felt bad or have mixed feelings about it. They feel alone sometimes and a little bit insecure.Ìý



Keeping in touch with former partners delay the healing process

Acceptance of the hurt feelings and giving time to one self are critical in self-healing and self-discovery

Turning negative emotions and low self-esteem into positivity by focusing more on themselves.



Clarice Lispector “It’s inside myself that I must create someone who will understand thatâ€

A breakup is also an experience in life, when you got out of it, you will have enough in your head to sort out by working things out yourself.






BDC3714 Visual Culture and Technology


This project is under the guidance of Dr Fiona Wong E Chiong (BDC3714 Visual Culture and Technology) andÌýDr Goh Yi Sheng (BDC3725 Major Research Project), Department of Art, Design and Media, School of Arts, Sunway University, August – December 2021.


To create a visual output based on the research topic for the subject ‘Major Research Project’.Ìý



The idea for this final artwork is going to be a short video. It is focusing on the healing and recovery when moving on from a romantic breakup. The audience will have an idea of the process which is symbolised by a flower.Ìý








The flower represents the relationship, the protagonist cares for it with her whole heart but the relationship ended in a bad state, the flower was dead, symbolising the end. The girl was having a hard time recovering. She started to draw a dead flower, part of healing, expressing emotions in her own way. The dead flower was thrown in the trash, meaning the girl treats her former partner dead anyway, it is for her to move on. She started dwelling from the past as she has a new life now.



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]]> /2022ugconference/phan-xiao-huei/feed/ 0 Lee Sheir Yin /2022ugconference/lee-sheir-yin-2/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=lee-sheir-yin-2 /2022ugconference/lee-sheir-yin-2/#respond Wed, 02 Mar 2022 10:32:02 +0000 /2022ugconference/?p=4828  

Fiona Wong




















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]]> /2022ugconference/lee-sheir-yin-2/feed/ 0 Holly Woodman /2022ugconference/holly-woodman/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=holly-woodman /2022ugconference/holly-woodman/#respond Mon, 07 Feb 2022 13:34:03 +0000 /2022ugconference/pzzfj94c/
Holly Woodman

Holly Woodman

Blackpool School of Arts (B&FC) | Year 3 | Degree: BA (Hons) Fine Art
The Embodiment of Physical Health Conditions in Contemporary Art

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WARNING: THIS POSTER CONTAINS IMAGES THAT MAY CAUSE DISTRESS.


The research I am conducting explores the ways contemporary artists depict their personal physical health conditions throughout their artistic practice. Artists such as Frida Kahlo, Hannah Wilke, and Tracey Emin will be discussed due to the relevance that these female artists have all battled with chronic illness during their life and have documented their illness throughout their practice. This subject matter is of personal relevance as my practice also documents all attributes of my chronic illness, both physical and mental.


The reason this research has significance today is historically the disabled art movement developed in the 1970’s/80’s following the success of the Disabled Peoples’ Movement. Classically, most artworks depicting the themes of disability were created by artists without disability. By reflecting on their own experiences, disabled artists were able to provide a real and honest perspective on chronic illness.

Although disability art in the 21st century is not as highly political as it once was, there is still need for awareness. As disabled and chronically ill artists and practitioners are being included in the mainstream art industry, this enables a wider and more diverse audience to feel represented in art galleries, it encourages them to view, and experience the artworks. 


Kahlo, 1945.
Kahlo, 1945.


Kahlo, F. (1945) Without Hope [Oil on Canvas]. Museo Dolores Olmedo, Mexico.


 â€œPain is inherently lonely because it cannot be shared, and it can cause us to disengage from others and even from ourselves. Art is one way to work through pain, while at the same time connecting with oneself.†(Stahl, 2016, p.2). Frida Kahlo is an artist who famously used her art to communicate her experience of pain caused by her disabilities. Without Hope offers the viewers an insight to the many illnesses Kahlo suffered with throughout her life. She experienced a reduced appetite and a loss of weight due to her illnesses and large quantity of surgeries. This painting documents one of Kahlo’s treatments of being force-fed a blend of fattening foods to tackle her weight issue. It allows the viewer to experience the emotions that coincide with chronic pain and illness, there is a sense of overwhelming upset and pain as you can see the artist crying whilst being restricted by an easel and a large funnel of several meats and animals.


Hannah Wilkes’ Intra-Venus exhibition showcases a startlingly honest documentation of the artists last couple of year of her life. The exhibition contains a range of artworks, including large scale images that allows the viewer to experience the progressive stages that patients endure of chemotherapy. Wilke does not hide anything from her audience as she depicts everything for example, damage on her tongue caused by radiation, hair loss from chemotherapy, and her bruised body from bone marrow harvest.

In Bandages from Bone Marrow Harvest, we can see Wilke standing with bandages taped to her hips where her bone marrow has been harvested as treatment for Lymphoma. ‘The viewer gets a sense of the rapidity of the disease, it’s ability to tear swiftly through the body.’ (Cheney, 1994), which can be seen in Intra-Venus Series No. 1 as Wilkes’ body in the image on the right is presented with strength and shapeliness, this strength is then cruelly stripped away in the image on the right where we see a more swollen and limp Wilke with an exhausted expression on her face making an uneasy and painful transition for the viewer.

As an unfamiliar audience it is more common to recoil from subjects such as mortality and illness however, ‘…photographing herself is a way of getting close to the viewer, telling us the most private of death and disease, details that perhaps some of us would prefer to avoid.’ (Cheney, 1994).



Bandages from Bone Marrow Harvest (right).

Wilke, H. (1992) Intra-Venus Series No. 1, [Chromogenic supergloss print 2 panels]. Ronald Feldman Gallery, New York.



Wilke, H. (1992) Brushstrokes No. 6, [Artist’s hair on paper]. Ronald Feldman Gallery, New York.


Emin, T (2020) We All Bleed, [Photography].


Emin, T (2020) Self-portrait with Urostomy Bag, [Photography].


After receiving her cancer diagnosis, Tracey Emin recorded her treatment and disability through a series of photographs as a way to document her experiences. These photographs, like Wilke, show viewers the various aspects of Emin’s personal battle with cancer. ‘This public ability to speak so universally about her illness… is to help herself and others deal with challenges and stigma.’ (Jones, 2021). ). Emin also discusses elements of disability that are not commonly discussed such as fatigue which can be seen in Exhausting… Self-portrait in bed, this image shows Tracey Emin in her bed with noticeable dark under eyes. Throughout her work Emin has always presented herself in her work in a raw and unfiltered manner, her illness has been no exception ‘Emin is keen to raise awareness, and knows she has a unique opportunity.’ (Durrant, 2021), as she believes that there is a great deal of unspoken understanding for persons with disabilities. 


The methodology of this research is practice-led with myself as the participant model, there is use of primary sources from my medical experiences and my personal medical file. There is also an exploration of secondary research through the study and analyse of the works of Kahlo, Wilke and Emin.

My work has, and continues to, enable me to process and express my trauma, diagnosis, pain, and disability. Art has facilitated a space for me to raise awareness and tell my story. My work creates opportunities for the viewer to ask questions, to relate to a time of isolation or pain in their life, and to speak about illness and disability.  

Viewing Life through Jaundice Eyes shows a living room in yellow tones, this was in response to being confined to this one room during the height of my illness when I was out of hospital. The yellow tones are a representation of the jaundice I experienced whilst in liver failure. Yellow is also a representative for loneliness and isolation, which is another important key theme in this painting as this theme can relate to everyone globally during the COVID-19 pandemic.


Viewing Life through Jaundice Eyes
Viewing Life through Jaundice Eyes

Viewing Life through Jaundice Eyes, 2022.


Life Without a Stomach, 2021.


Shella, 2017, pg. 62.
Shella, 2017, pg. 62.

(Shella, 2013).


During my research I have found that there are areas of alternative medication, such as art therapy, which has shown a positive outcome for those who suffer from chronic illnesses. A case study performed by Tamara A. Shella indicates that out of the 195 participants 129 found that their pain levels had improved. The overall results showed that the participants experienced reduced pain and improved mood during art therapy.

 

 

This research has led to my hypothesis that reduced pain and elevated mood may be helped by art therapy or the creation of art as it may allow for the ability of processing trauma to the body through illness and pain. When Hannah Wilke battled cancer, she ‘…seems to have wanted to sever the intricate, but now surely agonisingly painful, bonds between her gaze, her body… using photography to objectify her body for herself, to make the signs of cancer and its treatments legible: to make sense of death.’ (Wilke, 1995). Art may grant us to break down our ailments, to support us in understand them and allow us to express emotions and experiences that words cannot. 


Acknowledgments:

I would like to express my deepests thanks to the tutors at Blackpool School of Arts for their constant support; Ann Carragher, Nick Kowalski, and Tracey Eastham, to the brilliant and life-saving NHS, without whom I would not be here today and finally to the brave artists mentioned in this research who are such great inspiration.


Reference List:

Archive.ph. (2013) archive.ph. Available at: https://archive.ph/20130120044651/http://www.dacymru.com/dwl/InfoWhat.html (Accessed: 26 February 2022).

Durrant, N. (2021) Tracey Emin on life after cancer and living with a disability. Available at: https://www.standard.co.uk/culture/exhibitions/tracey-emin-exhibition-art-invisible-disability-urostomy-bag-cancer-b933178.html (Accessed: 9 January 2022).

Cheney, E. (1994) ‘Hannah Wilke: Intra-Venus’ Art Papers, 1 July, pp.60-61.

Jacob, J. (2021) Frida Kahlo: Her Chronic Pain Chronicled in Four Paintings. Available at: https://www.thecollector.com/frida-kahlo-her-chronic-pain-chronicled-in-four-paintings/ (Accessed: 05 January 2022).

Jones, J. (2021) Tracey Emin on her cancer self-portraits: ‘This is mine. I own it’. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2021/may/13/tracey-emin-on-beating-cancer-you-can-curl-up-and-die-or-you-can-get-on-with-it (Accessed: 18 February 2022).

Shella, T. (2018) Art Therapy Improves Mood and Reduces Pain and Anxiety When Offered at Beside During Acute Hospital Treatment, The Arts in Psychotherapy, (57), pp.59-62.

Shillinger, S. (2021) Life is Pain: An Exploration of Suffering in Art – Google Arts & Culture. Available at: https://artsandculture.google.com/usergallery/life-is-pain-an-exploration-of-suffering-in-art/GAKyDk9OtIm9KQ (Accessed: 09 February 2022).

Wilke, H. (1995) Intra-Venus. New York: Ronald Feldman Fine Arts.

Wise, L. (2022) â€˜I am here. I’m alive.’ Tracey Emin on health, wealth and finding happiness. Available at: https://www.ft.com/content/ffd55216-7751-43d3-9ad8-f495 cb0d7c7 (Accessed: 5 January 2022).


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]]> /2022ugconference/holly-woodman/feed/ 0 Christi Perou /2022ugconference/christi-perou/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=christi-perou /2022ugconference/christi-perou/#respond Mon, 07 Feb 2022 13:34:03 +0000 /2022ugconference/k8g3tbp9/
Christi Perou

Christi Perou

Law School (Bailrigg) | Year 3 | Degree: Law LLB
Corporate social responsibility and directors’ duties

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What is corporate social responsibility (CSR)?


There is no single accepted definition for CSR. CSR might be defined as voluntary activities that large companies are engaging with in order to minimize their outcome to society. Such activities include philanthropy, minimizing environmental pollution, improving working conditions. CSR is endeavoring to address the externalities of companies to various stakeholders and is seeking a shift from shareholder wealth maximization to a balance of all stakeholders’ interests. Note that even though CSR is promoting the balance of interests of stakeholders and shareholders there is no indication which stakeholder group’s interests are to prevail in cases of conflict of interest. Lastly, some of the most widely accepted characteristics of CSR include long term focus, reputation and voluntary. 


Who are the stakeholders? 

Anyone, not necessarily a human being, who can be affected by the operation of companies can be classified as a stakeholder. Stakeholders include, but are not limited to, employees, customers, shareholders, creditors, the community and the environment.

Stakeholders are important for a company since the latter cannot make a profit without the former. Employees are important since they are producing the goods that a company is selling, or they offer services to the clients. Customers are important too because if they do not buy a company’s product or services then the latter cannot make a profit. CSR is dealing with the relationship of the company to stakeholders and the former is endeavoring to protect stakeholders’ interests. 



What is shareholder wealth maximization?

Shareholder wealth maximization is what most companies are endeavouring to achieve. This principle translates to the increase of profit for the company and shareholders. Note that when a company is increasing its profits then shareholders are increasing their profits too. However, shareholder wealth maximization is increasing profits on the expense of other stakeholders. That is why CSR is endeavouring to shift the focus off shareholder wealth maximization because the former is focusing on the interests of all stakeholders, not only shareholders’.



Csr’s definition depends on the lens: 

It depends on the background and the lens of someone approaching this principle. For instance, usually, companies are using strategic CSR or CSR as a marketing strategy to increase profit. CSR as a marketing strategy is used for window-dressing by companies stating that they are CSR conscious even if they are not. Strategic CSR means companies are engaging in CSR activities to conceal their interests in shareholder wealth maximization and increase this profits in the long term. CSR nowadays is more of a trend for large companies since it is highly related to corporate reputation. However, there is also ethical CSR which is companies engaging in CSR activities voluntary without any financial interest. 

Corporate lawyers tend to connect CSR with corporate governance. Corporate governance regulates how a company is governed, for instance, what are directors’ duties. It is questionable whether engagement in CSR activities is included in directors’ duties. Even though there is no piece of legislation mentioning the principle of CSR or guiding companies to engage in CSR activities it is argued that CSR is mirrored by section 172 (s172) of the Companies Act 2006 (CA 2006).



What are directors’ duties? 

Directors’ duties are the duties that every director owes to a company and include, inter alia, the duty to promote the success of the company which is defined in s172 of the CA 2006. They owe such duties because in the eyes of law a company is a separate legal person, which means that it can sue and can be sued. Before examining the duty in s172 it is worth looking at the legal position before 2006.



The position before 2006:

Directors’ duties in general, before the enactment of the CA 2006, could be found in the common law. Common law is defined as the legal principles that derive from cases, not statutes. Before 2006 the courts were approaching the duty to promote the success of the company differently, depending on the facts of each case. This was confusing since there was no single approach as to what constitutes the success of the company. Usually, courts were interpreting the success of the company as the interests of its shareholders. However, in some cases, the success of the company was not defined as merely the interests of shareholders and included the interests of employees or creditors. Because of the confusion and the court’s amorphous approach to the duty to promote the success of the company it was decided to codify all directors’ duties in the CA 2006.



The introduction of s172:

The introduction of s172 was deemed to be confusing since the provision is vague. It does not provide adequate guidance to directors on how to discharge their duty, especially in terms of prioritising stakeholders’ interests in a conflict of interests scenario.



S172: 

S172 provides that a directors’ duty is to promote the success of the company for the benefit of shareholders and in doing so, to have regard, inter alia, to the interests of various stakeholders. It is clear that the interests of shareholders are supreme since the director must have regard to the interests of stakeholders in discharging this duty. A director can consider the interests of stakeholders in a decision but he is not obliged to choose the decision that will benefit them. He/She must decide for the interests of shareholders and as long as these interests are promoted then consider the interests of stakeholders too.

S172 provides that the director must consider the interests of a list of stakeholders, which is not exhaustive, but no further guidance is provided as to the priority of each group of stakeholders. For example, it is provided that the interests of employees and customers should be considered but there is no indication which one is paramount. In cases of conflict of interest, s172 does not provide whose interests are to take priority.


Does s172 mirror CSR? Yes?  

S172 provides for the consideration of the interests of stakeholders and as said CSR is promoting the balance of the interests of shareholders and stakeholders. S172 contains some of the characteristics of CSR which include the long term focus, the consideration of the interests of various stakeholders and a company’s desirability to maintain a good reputation. At first blush, it might be argued that s172 mirrors the principle of CSR since it contains some of its basic characteristics.



Does s172 mirror CSR? Yes?  

It might be argued that CSR is vague since, as said, there is no universally accepted definition. Also, because there is no guidance in terms of interest prevalence amongst stakeholders, CSR can be characterized as confusing. The same issue is spotted in relation to s172, since it does not provide guidance on whose interests, among stakeholders, are to be prioritised. It might be argued that s172 mirrors CSR indirectly since it has the same issue with interests prioritization. CSR does not provide whose interests are to prevail and thus, s172 does not either.



Does s172 mirror CSR? No? 

Even though s172 contains some of the characteristics of CSR, it does not mirror the latter. CSR provides for a balance between shareholders’ and stakeholders’ interests. S172 though provides that the interests of shareholders are supreme, which contradicts with the idea of CSR. The key in s172 are the phrases ‘in doing so’ and ‘to have regard’ which imply that the director, in acting for the success of shareholders, in discharging his duty, has to consider the interests of stakeholders. However, there is no additional requirement for the director to promote the interests of stakeholders.



Does s172 mirror CSR? No? 

S172 promotes strategic but not ethical CSR. The motive provided by s172 to companies to be, in a way, more socially responsible is reputation. Ethical CSR provides that companies are being socially responsible because they care about their impacts on society and they do not have any other goals, like increasing profit in long term. However, s172 provides indirectly for sort of strategic CSR.



Does s172 mirror CSR? No? 

The fact that the interests of more stakeholders have been introduced by s172 in the decision-making process, does not mean that the director is obliged to promote them. S172 provides that the director must promote the success of the company for the benefit of the members, i.e. shareholders. In terms of the interests of stakeholders, s172 provides that the director must have regard, not promote them. Directors are obliged to promote the interests of shareholders, not stakeholders, which is contrary to the idea of CSR. According to s172 the interests of stakeholders must be considered, not promoted, as long as this benefits shareholders which is not compatible with CSR since the latter provides that balance between stakeholders’ interests is key. 



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]]> /2022ugconference/christi-perou/feed/ 0 Adam Stanney /2022ugconference/adam-stanney/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=adam-stanney /2022ugconference/adam-stanney/#respond Mon, 07 Feb 2022 13:34:03 +0000 /2022ugconference/rfrrr7hv/
Adam Stanney

Adam Stanney

History (Bailrigg) | Year 3 | Degree: History
Pre-Viking Connections; Characterising the Maritime Communities of the North Sea World, c.600AD-850AD.

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W E L C O M E   T O   M Y   P R E S E N T A T I O N   W E B P A G E , which will summarise my dissertation research into the early medieval North Sea. This research takes three trading communities – or emporia – as case studies; Ipswich in East Anglia, Dorestad in the Netherlands and Ribe in western Denmark.

The aim of this research is to paint a holistic image of the pre-Viking world, analysing these case studies with respect to key three areas; the economic and social interconnectivity between emporia, the socio-economic trends within them, and how they fit into wider trends of medieval urbanism.

Each section below will discuss a chapter of the dissertation, before bringing them together and indicating opportunities for further research.


A map of major emporia, with the dissertation’s case studies in red



I N T E R C O N N E C T E D   W O R L D

It is the Vikings who are, in the public consciousness, associated most heavily with long-distance trade and communication. However, maritime activity was incredibly advanced in the years before the Viking Age. The diffusion of cultural norms as well as economic activity can be seen below, and an argument for deep cultural and economic connectivity is laid out on this basis in the first chapter. Here we can see a truly interconnected North Sea world.

Some evidence from England

Cultural – English missionaries such as Willibrord travelled to the Continent to places such as Utrecht, near the key case study of Dorestad, spreading religious ideas.

Economic – aside from the plethora of international material found at Ipswich and its satellite sites, coin loss at comparable emporia such as Hamwic (Southampton) indicates heightened trade. Parallel sites are useful in the study of this research area and the early medieval period more broadly, as evidence may be scant in some areas.

Søren Sindbæk’s network model – emporia are conceptualised as nodes within a network. The degree of cultural and economic connection between sites is proportional to the proximity it has to a major node. Thus, hinterland settlements or smaller trading sites will exhibit more markers of international connection if they are in close communication with emporia.


The Dorestad Sword, an example of a high-status trade good


An early-modern engraving of St. Willibrord from the Netherlands



K I N G S   A T   T H E   C O A S T

Running through most major scholarship on the pre-Viking economy of the region is the extent to which royal agents were involved in the inception, proliferation and development of emporia, and by extension the extent to which kings commanded the networks laid out in the previous chapter. Although it is an incredibly nuanced historiographical debate with a spectrum of opinion, its two main camps are exemplified by work of two scholars, Richard Hodges and Christopher Loveluck, whose arguments are discussed below. The second chapter settles on the Loveluckian end of the spectrum, but not without some qualification. Namely, that there is certainly room for royal agency, yet this varies from place to place and was often of an opportunistic nature, taxing and controlling trade after the fact. In essence, kings came to the coast.

Totemic pieces of scholarship

Richard Hodges – primarily presented in Dark Age Economics (1982), Hodges assigns agency to the royal party. Emporia are conceptualised as trading settlements that foremost serve elite goods exchange, with these high-status products fuelling a king’s patronage network. Thus, little agency is left for any but the upper echelons of society.

Christopher Loveluck – representing more modern trends in historiography, Loveluck argues strongly against Hodges’ ideas and highlights the contributions of the merchant class to the formation of emporia and subsequent North Sea network. Trade instead served the needs of communities, which pursued disparate and sporadic trade according to self-interest. Thus, Hodges’ thesis is flipped on its head, with most agency being assigned to individual merchants and maritime communities rather than national elites.

Dagfinn Skre – an example of a halfway house within the debate, Skre acknowledges the contributions of both sides and incorporates them into a holistic characterisation. For instance, royal involvement can certainly be recognised in the form of infrastructure and protection, yet this formalised and transnational framework allowed merchants to pursue a profit incentive as opposed to a form of trade strictly monitored by local social norms. Thus, Skre harmonises elements of this debate and creates space for elite and non-elite agency.

Primary material in relation to royal control

Numismatic evidence – coins finds could indicate a royal framework within which trade is conducted, depending on things such as the design of the coin.

Urban planning – postholes and plots could indicate widescale, unfirm organisation by a king. However, this should not be taken ipso facto as royal agency, as local elites – or even merchants themselves – could have been capable of urban organisation on some scale.

Literary sources – tax edicts could indicate the nature of royal control over a particular emporia or trade route. Furthermore, a chronicler’s mention of merchants could indicate a cultural inclination to associate an ethnic or social group, or geographical area with travel and trade.


An example of royal coinage – a Middle Saxon penny from East Anglia – which may indicate a royal framework for trade


A visualsation of network theory using settlements in Denmark


The above diagram laid onto a geographical map. The extent of connections with Ribe can be seen here, as well as places such as Hedeby



A   S T E P P I N G   S T O N E   T O   T H E   M O D E R N ?

Considering the portrayal of emporia as vibrant, international and wealthy centres, it may be tempting to see them as the early medieval equivalent of our modern cities. While there is an element of truth to this, a closer inspection of just how urban these centres were, as well as the variety of their function, reveals a more nuanced image. These settlements can doubtlessly be fitted into wider trends in pre-modern urbanism, yet they were unique settlements and should not be viewed teleologically – that is, seeing emporia solely as a stepping stone to modern urbanism as opposed to phenomena in their own right.

Some select qualifications utilised to explore urbanism

Permanency? – whether a settlement is inhabited all year round or not is a key marker of urbanism. In the case of Ribe, scholarship was previously settled on this emporium being a seasonal settlement. However, the application of evidence from archaeological digs at places such as Sct Niclojgade 8 has brought this into question. Croix has argued in favour of several markers of permanency at Ribe, such as the levelling and stabilising of land as well as previously unknown permanent buildings. The permanency – and thus urbanism – of emporia can now be affirmed.

One dimensional function? – there is limited evidence that there was a political dimension to emporia. The fact that these were economic mines for kings, as opposed to seats of administration, forces us to reconsider their place in a linear development towards the towns of the later Middle Ages, despite clear aspects of urbanism such as permanency. As Moreland puts it, “we destroy the distinctiveness of economic processes in the eighth century by the imposition of evolutionary and developmental modelsâ€.


An artist’s impression of daily activity at early medieval Ribe


A comb found at Ribe – an example of everyday items common at emporium sites



T H E   N O R T H   S E A   W O R L D

Drawing these conclusions together, a general image emerges. Fundamentally, the pre-Viking North Sea was:

– An area with not only a sophisticated regional economy, but also a shared maritime culture.

– Created and developed by all strata of society, not just kings.

– Important to the development of northern European urbanism, but a crucially unique phenomenon.

The maritime peoples of the post-Roman era, serving their own needs, communicated in a variety of ways, with emporia as te vehicles of this, and subsequently developed complex networks that proved formative to the later history of the North Sea world and beyond.

Further avenues for research?

– Utilising more fully emporia that have been used here only in a comparative/secondary manner, such as Eorfowic (York), Quentovic, Hedeby, could either strengthen or alter the conclusion of the dissertation.

– Incorporating Channel, Baltic and Arctic trade, which often overlapped with that of the North Sea, could enrich the understanding of networks and test the models applied in this dissertation.

– Continuing the story into the Viking Age could be useful for more focussed research into the later development of northern European towns.


B I B L I O G R A P H Y :

Croix, Sarah, ‘Permanency in Early Medieval Emporia: Reassessing Ribe’, European Journal of Archaeology, 18.3 (2015), 497-523

Higham, Nicholas J. and Ryan, Martin J., The Anglo-Saxon World (United Kingdom: Yale University Press, 2015)

Hodges, Richard, Dark Age Economics: the Origins of Towns and Trade A.D. 600-1000 (London: Duckworth, 1982)

Loveluck, Christopher, Northwest Europe in the Early Middle Ages, c.AD600-1150: A Comparative Archaeology (New York: United States of America: Cambridge University Press, New York, 2013)


Skre, Dagfinn, ‘Towns and markets, kings and central places in south-western Scandinavia c. AD800-950’, in Kaupang in Skiringssal, ed. by Dagfinn Skre (Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 2007)

Skre, Dagfinn, ‘Post-substantivist production and trade. Specialized sites for trade and craft production in Scandinavia c. 600-1000AD’, in Maritime Societies of the Viking and Medieval World, ed.  by James H. Barrett and Sarah Jane Gibbon (United Kingdom: Maney Publishing, 2015)

Sindbæk, Søren M., ‘Networks and nodal points: the emergence of towns in early Viking Age Scandinavia’, Antiquity, 81.311 (March 2007), 119-132

Sindbæk, Søren M., ‘The Small World of the Vikings: Networks in Early Medieval Communication and Exchange’, Norwegian Archaeological Review, 40.1 (2007), 59-74



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]]> /2022ugconference/adam-stanney/feed/ 0 Kathryn Ann Villacrusis Concepcion /2022ugconference/kathryn-ann-villacrusis-concepcion/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=kathryn-ann-villacrusis-concepcion /2022ugconference/kathryn-ann-villacrusis-concepcion/#respond Mon, 07 Feb 2022 13:34:01 +0000 /2022ugconference/ax88runj/  

Kathryn Ann Villacrusis Concepcion

Kathryn Ann Villacrusis Concepcion

Marketing (Sunway) | Year 3 | Degree: BSc (Hons) Business Studies
Social media as a tool for social change: A study on the drivers of Gen Z’s in behavioural change

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]]> /2022ugconference/kathryn-ann-villacrusis-concepcion/feed/ 0 Andrea Ando /2022ugconference/andrea-ando/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=andrea-ando /2022ugconference/andrea-ando/#respond Mon, 07 Feb 2022 13:34:01 +0000 /2022ugconference/rn8qy86a/
Andrea Ando

Andrea Ando

Law School (Bailrigg) | Year 2 | Degree: LLB Law (International Law)
Outdated standards, poverty and the gender gap: a study on the consequences of inequalities on the Rule of Law

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Definition of Rule of Law

The traditional definition, at least in UK, ha been historically related to A.V. Dicey. Dicey highlights 3 concept of the rule of law:

  1. ‘no man is punishable or can be lawfully made to suffer in body or goods except for a distinct breach of law established in the ordinary legal manner before the ordinary courts of the land. In this sense the rule of law is contrasted with every system of government based on the exercise by persons in authority of wide, arbitrary, or discretionary powers of constraint’
  2. every man, whatever be his rank or condition, is subject to the ordinary law of the realm and amenable to the jurisdiction of the ordinary tribunals’.
  3.  the principles of the constitution are the result of the ordinary law of the land. Dicey stated that Britain had a court-based constitution (in effect, a common law constitution), in the sense that decisions made by the judges directly resulted the principles of the constitution which concerning the rights of private persons. 

 

In modern time, in the lecture entitled “The Rule of Law”, Lord Bingham tried to modernise the concept of Rule of Law set by Dicey:

“Sub-rule 1: The law must be accessible so far as possible, intelligible, clear and predictable.

Sub-rule 2: Questions of legal right and liability should generally be decided by   application of the law and not the exercise of the discretion.

Sub-rule 3:  The law must apply equally to everyone, unless differences can be justified.

Sub-rule 4: The law must provide appropriate protection of essential and basic human rights.

Sub-rule 5: The parties in civil disputes must be able to resolve disputes without facing a huge legal cost or excessive delays.

Sub-rule 6: The executive must use the powers given to them reasonably, in good faith, for the proper purpose and must not exceed the limit s of these powers.

Sub-rule 7: There must be adjudicative procedural fairness.

Sub-rule 8: The state must comply with the obligations of international law which whether deriving from treaty or international custom and practice governs the conduct of nations”.



The Invisibles 

The Key point stated is that social disparity and economic exclusion, resulting from excessive and persistent levels of inequalities, leads to extreme poor to be invisible demonisation of those who oppose the system, and impunity of the wealthy, obliterating judicial impartiality. Furthermore, excessive, and persistent social and economic disparity causes the integrity of Rule of Law to deteriorate.

In this context, invisibility indicates that human suffering of some portion of the society does not elicit a moral or political reaction from the most privileged, nor does it elicit an effective legal response from State officials[1].

The invisible in England and Wales could be easily reconnected to people who cannot access to Legal Aid. The latter was reformed by the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012.

 

 

The invisible in England and Wales could be easily reconnected to people who cannot access to Legal Aid. The latter was reformed by the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012.

 

[1] O. Vilheina Veira, ‘Inequality and the subversion of the Rule of Law’, [2007] International Journal on Human Rights 4



The Invisibles – part 2

The issues become stronger and more dangerous when they concern the access to legal assistance in Criminal Law. The Committee heard concerns from legal aid providers, particularly criminal defence attorneys, about the profession’s long-term viability. Many law companies, indeed, are unable to attract or retain attorneys, with many departing to join the Crown Prosecution Service. Fewer barristers are able to establish their careers at the bar through publically financed work. The fee scheme structure does not do enough to help attorneys in providing the best quality of service to their clients, particularly in the early phases of criminal proceedings. The dependence on fixed fees for so much criminal work fails to reflect the complexity of the situations handled by legal aid lawyers.

The existing cost structure is not flexible enough and has not been reviewed or revised in a long time. There has been a dramatic decline in the number of cases coming through over the previous decade, and as a result, legal aid providers have struggled to survive.

The adversarial nature of the justice system in England and Wales is dependent on the presence of a viable publicly financed criminal defence profession capable of providing a high-quality service to suspects and defendants. The quality of such service is central to our understanding of a fair trial.

There is an urgent need to revamp the present system so that providers get compensated for all labour done to help their clients, particularly at the beginning of the process.


Governments have taken attempts to minimise the cost of legal assistance since the turn of the century. Despite spending £1.76 Billion on legal aid in 2019-2020, the Government is becoming only able to assist a smaller portion of the population on a narrower variety of concerns.



Digital Poverty – The effect on the access to justice

The digitalisation of formalities, as per previous analysis, would benefit the majority of the population. Indeed, around 92% of the adults in the UK are internet users. However, considering that there are around 46, 3 million adults in the UK, subtracting the 92% of internet users, 4,17 million residents do not have internet access. To better understand, it would be like the entirety of the East Midlands would not have a fair access to digital formalities and, eventually, to possible agreements. “Digital poverty†incentives the risk of mistake and fraud. To better explain, more than 4 million citizens are “more likely to enter into agreements in haste or error, or as a result of fraud, if they use electronic signaturesâ€. Moreover, an extensive digitalisation of formalities opens a question regarding the issues connected to safety and guarantee of the vulnerable. The digitalisation of witnessing, for instance, could become a way for avoiding the critical eye and increasing the risk of fraud, mostly in the case of the elderly.


Presumption of Advancement – An outdated standard 

A well-known and established equitable principle in English Law, specifically in Land Law, is the presumepition of advancement. The latter operates to presume that a purchaser or transferor of property intended to transfer the beneficial interest to the recipient in certain relationships. 

An example is the outdated principle that, unless there is proof that the husband intended to retain an interest, it is assumed that a gift to the wife was intended55. This also applies in the case of a man with a fiancée or partner because a man has a “natural obligationâ€56. However, this is just a one way system. Indeed the wife, or the female partner, in this case, has no duty57.

Another example is the “reliance principle†which means that a father could not rely on evidence of his true intention to keep ownership of the property where this was based on an illegal motive. However, a mother in exactly the same circumstances would be given her property back.

The presumption of advancement is medieval, and it was abolished in the Equality Act58. However, s.199 is not into force thus it is not abolished59. 

The Law Commission stated in its consultation on the presumption of progress that the rule’s gender bias is no longer acceptable, since it violates Art 5 of the Seventh Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights. This is stated: 

‘Spouses should have equality of rights and obligations of a private law character between them, as to marriage, throughout marriage, and in the case of its dissolution.’ 

 

In February 2010, the government acknowledged that the presumption of progress is discriminatory and should be repealed, and modifications to the Equality Bill were proposed to that effect. However, because Section 199 of the Equality Act of 2010 has not yet been enacted, the regulation remains in effect.

The question that rise in this case concerns it’s application in modern and contemporary times. For instance, how this would apply to LGBT couple? 

A double standard, based on a historical gender bias, that risk to not guarantee the fairness of the Law.

 

49 ibid.
50 Westdeutsche Landesbank Girozentrale v Islington LBC [1996] UKHL 12, [1996] A.C. 669, 708
51 Statista Research Department, ‘Distribution of homeowners in England in 2021, by type of home financing and age’ (Statista, December 2021) < https://www.statista.com/statistics/321097/distribution-of-home-owners-in- england-uk-by-type-of-home-financing-and-age/ > accessed 7 February 2022
52 Laskar v Laskar [2008] 1 W.L.R. 2695
53 Cowcher v Cowcher [1972] 1 W.L.R. 425
54 Jones v Kernott [2012] 1 A.C. 776, 777


Persistent inequalities and the erosion of Rule of Law – The example of Brazil

Another effect of high inequality to be noted here is immunity before the law for those who occupy an extraordinarily privileged position in society. In a highly hierarchical and unequal society, the affluent and powerful, or those working on their behalf, believe they are above the law and free from duties deriving from other people’s rights. The concept of immunity may be explored by concentrating on the impunity of human rights abusers or those involved in corruption, whether they are powerful or wealthy.

Human rights abusers face impunity in Brazil, as recorded by major human rights groups and acknowledged by federal authorities. Cases such as Vigario Geral in 1993, Candelária in 1993, Corumbiara in 1995, Eldorado de Carajas in 1996, Catelinho in 2002, or the police response to PCC assaults in 2006 resulted in hundreds of extra-judicial executions, with no substantial attempt to bring state authorities to justice. The acquittal of Colonel Ubiratan Guimares by the So Paulo State Supreme Court in 2005 was possibly the most notable example of impunity for a severe human rights violation. Ubiratan Guimares was in command of the police operation that ended in the deaths of 111 inmates in 1992 as a result of a prison rebellion.

“Disproportional distribution of resources among individuals and groups within society subverts institutions, including the work of those agencies with the responsibility to implement the law“.

An analysis of the Brazilian penitentiary census shows that only the poor and uneducated are selected by the Brazilian criminal system to be incarcerated.

That is the conclusion of Glaeser, Scheinkman and Shleifer, after an econometric analysis of the impact of inequality on institutions of justice. The authors also explained that the persistent inequalities enabled the riches to subvert political, regulatory, and legal institutions of society for their own benefit.

If one individual is sufficiently wealthy over another, and the courts are corruptible, the legal system will favour the wealthy over the just. This is also related to the challenges that particular socioeconomic classes have in accessing justice. 

Similarly, if political and regulatory institutions are influenced by money and power, they will favour the established rather than the efficient.

O. Vilheina Veira, ‘Inequality and the subversion of the Rule of Law’, [2007] International Journal on Human Rights 4





Conclusion

The research is trying to illustrate how the consistent presence of inequalities, and the persistent absence of policies to reduce them, are affecting the Rule of Law. Our perception in the United Kingdom, as in a lot of other modern democracies, is that the differences between social classes are not interesting the “sacred†justice. Nevertheless, for instance, with the inability to have a fair legal representation, the fairness of our legal system is more fragile than what the general public think. The current policies created the “invisible†and the risk, as the Brazilian experience showed us, is that this could tear apart the social stability and the status quo of the Rule of Law. The latter arise a new question on how effectively the stakeholder and the bodies, using their constitutional and social power, reduce the inequalities and protect the Rule of Law. Indeed, it is trivial thinking that the legal system has the capacity to overcome these profound issues.




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]]> /2022ugconference/andrea-ando/feed/ 0 Emma Pooley /2022ugconference/emma-pooley/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=emma-pooley /2022ugconference/emma-pooley/#respond Mon, 07 Feb 2022 13:34:01 +0000 /2022ugconference/n8s3kfhv/  

Emma Pooley

Emma Pooley

Economics (Bailrigg) | Year 4 | Degree: BSc Economics Hons (Industry)
What effect did the Stamp Duty Land Tax (SDLT) Holiday have on the UK (United Kingdom) housing market and did it create a housing bubble?

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it is necessary to explore the most recent changes in SDLT and its effects on the housing market.Ìý While the literature has identified some impacts of property taxes, stamp duty holidays and housing market activity, but there is no link to housing bubbles as of yet, highlighting a gap in the literature, and other impacts, such as the effects on the conveyancing sector itself, are also left ignored.Ìý

This dissertation will use various research methods, both quantitative and qualitative, to estimate the overall impact on the housing market in the UK.


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]]> /2022ugconference/emma-pooley/feed/ 0 Phoebe Kendrew /2022ugconference/phoebe-kendrew/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=phoebe-kendrew /2022ugconference/phoebe-kendrew/#respond Mon, 07 Feb 2022 13:34:01 +0000 /2022ugconference/rk2z69sw/
Phoebe Kendrew

Phoebe Kendrew

History (Bailrigg) | Year 3 | Degree: History
A Corpus Linguistic Analysis of Cocoliztli in the Relaciones Geográficas of New Spain

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Introduction 

With the colonisation of the Americas, the ‘New World’, numerous exchanges took place. One example is the biological exchange through the spread of diseases. Indeed, the Spanish conquest of Mexico (New Spain), 1519-21, was aided by an epidemic of smallpox, which had dramatic effects on the native Aztec (or Nahua) population. Throughout the 16th century, many more epidemics continued to occur. However, there is one disease whose identity remains a mystery to scholars, even to this day: cocoliztli.  


How catastrophic was disease in general?

There is a debate over how catastrophic the introduction of Western diseases really were on the immunologically naive natives of the Americas.

Historians in the 1960s, like Crosby and McNeill tend to highlight the destructive nature of disease, and statistical estimates by Cook and Simpson (1948) and Cook and Borah (1957) suggest that around 90% of natives had died by the end of the century. These arguments lean towards disease determinism.

However, more recently, this has been disputed, and more conservative estimates fall around 60-70%.

 


A graph showing the population collapse in Mexico, sourced from Acuna-Soto. 


Native disease victims, from the Florentine Codex Book XII, folio 54 (compiled 1540-85).


What is cocoliztli?

During the 16th century there were two main cocoliztli epidemics: 1545-8 and 1576-80. 

One of the issues with cocoliztli is the inability to match its symptoms with any of the established diseases of the time. Cocoliztli had ‘some degree of polymorphism’ due to the differing frequency of symptoms that were expressed/manifested. The course of the disease transmission for example in the 1576 epidemic, radiating outward from a source, mimicked other communicable diseases like smallpox and influenza, adding further confusion.

Historians have tried to identify cocoliztli, with suggestions including typhus, yellow fever, plague, influenza and smallpox, to name just a few. The emphasis was that the disease was imported from the West. However, Marr and Kiracofe’s proposition that the disease was actually of native origin, has altered our perspective entirely. 

Recent archaeological discoveries in Mexico have also broadened the amount of sources that can be used to decipher the identity of cocoliztli. Excavation of a Mixtec cemetery located in Oaxaca provides vital physical evidence of the epidemic. Investigation into the site from 2004 has revealed a strain of salmonella enterica present. This find, linked to the discovery of the same strain in a 12th century skeleton in Norway, offers another possibility.  

 


The Relaciones Geograficas


Table detailing the symptoms of the 1576 cocoliztli epidemic, sourced from Marr and Kiracofe.


Location of the grave excavation at Teposcolula Yucundaa, where traces of salmonella enterica was found. 


What was my investigation? 

My investigation was to analyse the way in which cocoliztli was addressed and portrayed in The Relaciones Geográficas of New Spain, to ascertain how disease was discussed, what causes there were, and if there were any cures. I would relate this to our current understanding of Nahua perceptions of health and the body, as well as contributing to the debate over the identity and deadly nature of cocoliztli. 

 


One of the pinturas (maps) that was returned with the RGs, this particular one is from The Relación Geográfica de Meztitlán


The Relaciones Geográficas

The RGs are an example of just one of many attempts to collect information about the Spanish crown’s dominions. They are one of the many carefully composed and intentional surveys that were distributed across the Spanish colonies. Juan López de Velasco was appointed as Royal Chronicler-Cosmographer in October 1571 and was tasked with mapping the colonies. The first draft of the RGs is dated 25th May 1577.

The RGs are a set of 50 questions, split into sections. Questions 1-10 dealt with Spanish towns, 11-15 concerned native towns, 16-37 were directed towards inland communities, and opposing this, 38-50 requested information on ports and coastal communities. It also requested a pintura (map) of the area. This means the RGs offer a comprehensive view of life in New Spain at this point. 

The questionnaire was distributed to the sub-units of territorial organisation – either corregimientos or ²¹±ô³¦²¹±ô»åí²¹²õ mayores. Due to the content of the survey, collaboration between natives and the Spanish was necessary. The RGs were completed and returned from 1579 to 1585.

Rene Acuna published an edited collection of ten of the RGs, whilst another two concerning Yucatan were published by Mercedes de la Garza. These are the documents I used.

 


Method 

Due to the vast nature of the corpora, (to date there are 168 documents comprising of almost a million words!), it was not be feasible for me to read the entirety of the RGs. As such, I used Voyant Tools, a free web-based application. By using a machine ready corpora (provided by the Digging into Early Colonial Mexico project at ÌÇÐÄÊÓƵ – see Murrieta-Flores), Voyant Tools provided various ways for me to analyse the corpora.

Voyant allowed me to search for key terms, and retrieve all instances where this appeared within the corpora. I extended my search by using ‘cocoliz*’ and ‘cocolix*’, to cover spelling variations. I found that cocoliztli was also referred to as ‘cocolizte(s)’, ‘cocoliztle(s)’ and ‘cocolixtle(s)’.



The home page of Voyant tools when the corpora has been uploaded, showing the wide variety of tools available to use to analyse corpora. 


Findings

My findings so far can be divided into four main areas: depopulation, identity and origin, causes and cures. 


Identity and Origin

The conflicting way cocoliztli is addressed – appearing only after the conquest yet being unfamiliar to Spaniards – could provide evidence to support scholars Marr and Kiracofe that propose that cocoliztli was an entirely new disease.

Despite discrepancies over when communities were afflicted with disease, the responses give the impression that the natives were healthier prior to the conquest, as an explicit example states, ‘vivieron antiguamente ³¾Ã¡²õ sanos que ahora’. Thus, this would seem to suggest that cocoliztli only appeared after the Spanish conquest, which is confirmed in one entry as, ‘antiguamente, no sabían lo que era un cocoliztle’.

Yet, this does not automatically mean that the disease was imported, as the retention of the Nahuatl to describe the disease is notable. There are attempts to translate it, describing cocoliztli as being the equivalent to: ‘peste’, ‘pestilencia’, ‘enfermedades’ and ‘pestilencias generales’.

However, the retention of the word may suggest Spanish unfamiliarity with the disease, as they attempt to explain it to the reader. It may also suggest that there is something alien about the word or the disease which means that using solely the translation will not suffice. As Dufendach states, the continued use of cocoliztli to refer to disease emphasises the ‘unchanged indigenous conceptualisation’ of disease.


Depopulation

It is almost too obvious that depopulation and cocoliztli were inextricably linked, however it is a key relationship that has to be addressed. In the corpora, whenever cocoliztli is mentioned, the high rate of depopulation of the area is also mentioned. This is the most prominent trend that can be deduced, as 38 of the 54 references also refer to the depopulation of the area.

As the graph below shows, the smallest decrease was 72%, from the Relación de Mexicaltzingo y su partido, Mexico, from ‘³¾Ã¡²õ de dos mil’ to ‘quinientos y sesenta tributarios’. The largest decrease, 99.75%, occured in the ¶Ù±ð²õ³¦°ù¾±±è³¦¾±Ã³²Ô del Pueblo de Texalucan in Tlaxcala, ‘habra en el dicho pueblo cuarenta indios vecinos, poco ³¾Ã¡²õ o menos y que antiguaments solia haber en é±ô dieciseis mil vecinos’.

Though these are only a few examples, it can indicate the depopulation levels certain localities were experiencing, yet should not be extrapolated to be considered representative of the entirety of New Spain.


Causes 

Many areas note the condition of the land, which links to the fundamental concept of dualism that natives used to understand the cosmos in general, as well as health. Numerous adjectives were used to describe the condition of the land, ‘tierra áspera, seca y fría y sana’, and each would have corresponding opposite pairs.

Air quality and wind was also a key cause. In the Relación de Iguala, the bad vapours, ‘corrompen los aires‘. For natives, the wind was an expression of the god of wind, Quetzacoatl, and had the potential to cause mass destruction. This could also be evidence of Spanish influence, as Hippocratic thought also considered wind to be harmful, depending on its temperature and quality. 

As the Aztecs valued equilibrium and order, change in rituals and enviroment could also cause disease. Reorganisation and disruption of traditional native spatial community organisation was an issue for some. Those that remained after the encomendero Pedro de Escobar had sold others into slavery, ‘han pasados grandes pestilencias’.

An overarching theme is the condition or change of the environment in which the natives resided. However, there were also solely spiritual causes of disease, as cocoliztli is also attributed to being sent by God. 

 


Cures 

It could be concluded that part of the reason cocoliztli was so deadly ‘por no tener remedios con que atajar las enfermedades’. The natives appear to have been renowned herbalists in the corpora, ‘cúranse con yerbas porque muchos dellos son herbolarios’. It is thus very surprising that there was no remedy found for cocoliztli, prompting one to think that natives had not encountered this disease or a disease of this kind before.

Other methods of healing other than the use of herbs are also described. The nature of bloodletting prior to conquest is detailed, as they would ‘punzarse la cabeza, pechos y vientres’. Whilst the Spanish used bloodletting as a way of balancing the humours, to achieve physical equilibrium, natives approached bloodletting from a spiritual perspective, viewing it as a sacrifice. Phlebotomy was an offering to the gods, as according to the founding myths of the Aztecs they were in blood debt to the sun.

 

 

 



What was my investigation and method?

Due to the vast nature of the corpora, it would be impossible to read every entry. As such, I employed the use of the free web-based program, Voyant Tools. By uploading a machine ready version of the corpora (courtesy of the DECM project based at ÌÇÐÄÊÓƵ), the program provides numerous ways to explore and represent patterns. 

This enabled me to search for the term cocoliztli, and the program would provide all instances within the corpora where this was mentioned. Moreover, by entering terms such as cocoliz* (meaning any word with the stem cocoliz), I could expand the results and account for any spelling variations. Through this, I found that cocoliztli was also referred to as: cocoliztle(s), cocolitze(s) and cocolixtle(s).


Conclusion

Overall, this poster has given an overview of the trends and information that can be extracted from the references to cocoliztli in the RGs. What can be deduced is a strong persistence of native Nahua beliefs in terms of health, but also an indication of the intertwining of native and Spanish ideas, whether voluntarily or imposed. Resultantly, glimpses into the embryonic hybridity of mestizo society are visible. A definitive answer cannot be given on the origin of cocoliztli; however, it seems that cocoliztli was not present before the conquest, and the term cocoliztli was used in different ways by different communities. Despite significant challenges in terms of the sparsity and reliability of data, insights into the truly devastating nature of disease were provided. As my research is ongoing, I suspect there will be many more deductions to make about cocoliztli. In regards to further research, cocoliztli and the RGs are continuing to be a topic of fascination and focus.


Bibliography 

Primary Sources 

Acuña, René, Relaciones Geográficas del siglo XVI, 10 vols (Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas, 1982-8)

de la Garza, Mercedes, Relaciones histórico-geográficas de la gobernación de Yucatán, 2 vols (Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicas, Centro de Estudios Mayas, 1983)

Secondary Sources

Acuna-Soto, Rodolfo and others, ‘Megadrought and Megadeath in 16th Century Mexico’, Emerging Infectious Diseases, 8.4 (2002), 360-62

Cline, Howard, ‘The Relaciones Geográficas of the Spanish Indies, 1577-1586’, The Hispanic American Historical Review, 44.3 (1964), 341-74  

Crosby, A.W., The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492, 30th edn (Westport: Praeger, 2003)

Dufendach, Rebecca, ‘Nahua and Spanish Concepts of Health and Disease in Colonial Mexico, 1519-1615’ (Doctoral dissertation, University of California, 2017) 

Lockhart, James, The Nahuas After Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of Central Mexico, Sixteenth through Eighteenth Centuries (California: Stanford University Press, 1992)

Marr, John S. and James B. Kiracofe, ‘Was the Huey Cocoliztli a Haemorrhagic Fever?’, Medical History, 44 (2000), 341-62 

McNeill, W.H., Plagues and Peoples (Oxford: Blackwell, 1977)

Mundy, Barbara E., The Mapping of New Spain: Indigenous Cartography and the Maps of the Relaciones Geográficas (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996) 

Murrieta-Flores, Patricia, Diego Jiménez-Badillo, and Bruno Martins, ‘Artificial Intelligence, Computational Approaches, and Geographical Text Analysis to Investigate the History of Early Colonial Mexico’, Oxford Research Encyclopaedia of Latin American History, (2021 -In Press) 1-29

VÃ¥gene, Ã…shild J. and others, ‘Salmonella Enterica Genomes from Victims of a Major Sixteenth-Century Epidemic in Mexico’, Nature Ecology and Evolution, 2 (2018), 520-528

Warinner Christina, and others, ‘Disease, Demography and Diet in Early Colonial New Spain: Investigation of a Sixteenth-Century Mixtec Cemetary at Teposcolula Yucundaa’, Latin American Antiquity, 23.4 (2012), 467-489

 

 

 

 


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]]> /2022ugconference/phoebe-kendrew/feed/ 0 Maggie Mi /2022ugconference/maggie-mi/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=maggie-mi /2022ugconference/maggie-mi/#respond Mon, 07 Feb 2022 13:34:01 +0000 /2022ugconference/jehg9csn/
Maggie Mi

Maggie Mi

Linguistics and English Language (Bailrigg) | Year 3 | Degree: Linguistics BA
Diagnosing COVID-19 Using Speech

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Diagnosing COVID-19 Using Speech



On 11th February 2020, the World Health Organisation (WHO) announced, “Sever acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)â€, commonly known as the “Coronavirusâ€, as a disease and later labelled the outbreak as a global ‘Pandemic’ (WHO, 2020). At the time of writing, COVID-19 has claimed 5,992,666 lives (Dong, Du, & Gardner, 2020). Consequently, measures such as national lockdowns and social distancing rules were introduced around the world in attempt to contain such a transmissible disease (Singh & Singh, 2020). Arguably, the most reliable long-term protection against COVID-19 lies in prevention and deterrence of the disease as opposed to remedy and absolute antidotary solutions.



Research Rationale


Symptoms of COVID-19 include fever, cough, shortness of breath fatigue, headaches, and increased sputum production (Guan et al., 2020). These symptoms are related in speech and affect speech production. For instance, speech qualities, such as breathiness is directly influence by respiration. Moreover, numerous studies have found that respiration affects speech production and that various kinds of lung diseases, such as pneumonia, directly affects paralinguistic patterns (Lee, Loudon, Jacobson, & Stuebing, 1993; Ohala, 1990). Therefore, it is plausible that there exists a correlation between speech characteristics and physiological abnormalities that are caused by COVID-19 infection.

New drugs require extensive clinical testing before it is approved and deemed safe to be used on human patients. Therefore, to account for the urgency of the problem, the most suitable strategies involve controlling the spread of the virus are through means of “screening†and “testingâ€, and this response is mirrored globally (Hassan, Su, Sun, & Yih, 2020; Ibrahim, 2020; Josefsson, 2021; Van Nhu, Tuyet-Hanh, Van, Linh, & Tien, 2020).

Therefore, I aim to build a diagnostic tool for COVID-19 detection based on speech data and carry out socio-phonetic experiments on these models. Such a system is not only portable and require less time to output results, but it will also reveal speech features that are affected by COVID-19 that yet remain unexplored. Furthermore, the existence of such a system in hand with laboratory testing would be a life-saving resource for economically developing areas of the world that cannot afford modern medical resources, such as Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) test kits and vaccines.

 


Twitter Post from the British Prime Minister Boris Johnson (UK Prime Minister, 2020)


Prices of Test Kits taken from The New Foscote Hospital (2019)


Data  and Methodology


The data used in this project is collected from Project Coswara.

Project Coswara (Sharma et al., 2020) is founded by the Indian Institute Bangalore. It attempts to build a tool for COVID-19 detection using speech samples provided by individuals, that range from breathing sounds, cough sounds to speech. The raw dataset of this project is made publicly available online and is updated frequently. The repository that is used for this project consists of crowdsourced data, spanning from 13/04/2020 – 16/01/2022. Moreover, the data is advantageous in terms of its coding and labelling. The health statuses of individuals were coded as:

  1. healthy
  2. respiratory illness not identified
  3. fully recovered
  4. positive mild
  5. positive asymptomatic
  6. no respiratory illness exposed
  7. positive moderate

Additionally, sufficient metadata of the data contributors were also collected, for instance, sex, age, and location of origin.

Therefore, this dataset was chosen because of its comprehensiveness; there are in total 2375 speakers who each contributed 9 different categories:

  • Breathing sounds
    • Fast paced
    • Slow paced
  • Cough sounds
    • Shallow
    • Deep
  • Counting (in English) from one to twenty
    • Fast paced
    • Slow paced
  • Vowels
    • /i/ as in “tea”
    • /eɪ/ as in “raid”
    • /uË/ as in “food”

The data was then split into 80% training data 20% test data.


Methodology of Present ÌÇÐÄÊÓƵ


The basic idea behind this procedure is converting speech recordings to mathematical representations that machines can manipulate. The representations (i.e., vectors) are then used to train up Machine Learning classifiers to “sort” the unseen test data into categories, based on probabilities and likelihoods of the categories in the training dataset.


Preliminary Results


Task 1 is a classification task that identifies “COVID-19” speech and “healthy” speech. The Machine Learning classifier used is a Multilayer Perception and it showed an accuracy of 60.0%. 

Task 2 aims to explore the accuracy of COVID-19 detection in the vowel data, and identifying which vowel carries the most COVID-19 information. See results in the live conference. 

Task 3 aims to explore the accuracy of COVID-19 detection in varying paces of speech, and whether this has an impact on accuracy of diagnoses. See results in the live conference. 


References


Guan, W.-j., Ni, Z.-y., Hu, Y., Liang, W.-h., Ou, C.-q., He, J.-x., . . . Hui, D. S. (2020). Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China. New England journal of medicine, 382(18), 1708-1720.

Hassan, A., Su, Y., Sun, H., & Yih, W.-t. (2020). Proceedings of the First Workshop on Natural Language Interfaces. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the First Workshop on Natural Language Interfaces.

Ibrahim, N. K. (2020). Epidemiologic surveillance for controlling Covid-19 pandemic: types, challenges and implications. Journal of infection and public health, 13(11), 1630-1638.

Josefsson, K. W. (2021). Perspectives of life in Sweden during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 15(1), 80-86.

Lee, L., Loudon, R. G., Jacobson, B. H., & Stuebing, R. (1993). Speech breathing in patients with lung disease. American Review of Respiratory Disease, 147, 1199-1199.

Ohala, J. J. (1990). Respiratory activity in speech. In Speech production and speech modelling (pp. 23-53): Springer.

Sharma, N., Krishnan, P., Kumar, R., Ramoji, S., Chetupalli, S. R., Ghosh, P. K., & Ganapathy, S. (2020). Coswara–A Database of Breathing, Cough, and Voice Sounds for COVID-19 Diagnosis. arXiv preprint arXiv:2005.10548.

The New Foscote Hospital. (2019). Private COVID Testing. Retrieved from

UK Prime Minister [@10DowningStreet]. (2020, 20/10/2020). Retrieved 06/03/2022 from

Van Nhu, H., Tuyet-Hanh, T. T., Van, N. T. A., Linh, T. N. Q., & Tien, T. Q. (2020). Knowledge, attitudes, and practices of the Vietnamese as key factors in controlling COVID-19. Journal of community health, 45(6), 1263-1269.

WHO, C. O. (2020). World health organization. Responding to Community Spread of COVID-19. Reference WHO/COVID-19/Community_Transmission/2020.1.


Acknowledgements


A massive thank you to my supervisor Dr. George Brown, for her continued support and patience through the years. I would also like to thank Dr. Andrew Hardie for his mentorship and the encouragement. I’m very thankful to Lily’s insights on web page design and the tremendous support from my friends. Lastly, a special thanks to my parents, who set me off on the road of academia a long time ago. 


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